{"id":711,"date":"2018-06-05T21:13:24","date_gmt":"2018-06-05T13:13:24","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/www.eedu.xyz\/?p=711"},"modified":"2018-06-05T21:13:24","modified_gmt":"2018-06-05T13:13:24","slug":"loads%e8%8d%b7%e8%bd%bd-%e4%b8%ad%e8%8b%b1%e6%96%87%e7%bf%bb%e8%af%91%e5%af%b9%e7%85%a7","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"http:\/\/eedu.xyz\/?p=711","title":{"rendered":"Loads\u8377\u8f7d\u2014\u2014\u4e2d\u82f1\u6587\u7ffb\u8bd1\u5bf9\u7167"},"content":{"rendered":"

Loads<\/strong><\/p>\n

Introduction<\/p>\n

Normally, a design specification does not prescribe the magnitudes of the loads that are to be used as the basic input to the structural analysis, with the exception of special cases such as crane design specifications. It is the role of the specification to detail the methods and criteria to be used in arriving at satisfactory member and connection sizes for the structural material in question, given the magnitudes of the loads and their effects .The specification therefore reflects the requirements that must be satisfied by the structure in order that it will have a response that allows it to achieve the performance that is needed .Loads, on the other hand, are governed by the type of occupancy of the building, which in turn is dictated by the applicable local, regional, and national laws that are more commonly known at building codes.<\/p>\n

The building code loads have traditionally been given as nominal values, determined on the basis of material properties (e.g., dead load) or load surveys (e.g., live load and snow load).To be reasonably certain that the loads are not exceeded in a given structure, the code values have tended to be higher than the loads on a random structure at an arbitrary point in time. This may, if fact, be one of the reasons why excessive gravity loads are rarely the obvious cause of structural failures. Be that at it may, the fact of the matter is that all of the various types of structural loads exhibit random variations that are functions of time, and the manner of variation also depends on the type of load. Rather than dealing with nominal loads that appear to be deterministic a nature, a realistic design procedure should take load variability into account along with that of the strength, in order that adequate structural safety can be achieved through rational means.<\/p>\n

Since the random variation of the loads is a function of time as well as a number of other factors, the modeling, strictly speaking, should take this into account by using stochastic analyses to reflect the time and space interdependence. Many studies have dealt with this highly complex phenomenon, especially as it pertains to live load in buildings. In practice, however, the use of time-dependent loads is cumbersome at best, although the relationship must be accounted for in certain cases (i.e., seismic action).For most design situations the code will specify the magnitude of the loads as if they were static. Their time and space variation are covered through the use of the maximum load occurring over a certain reference (return) period, and its statistics. For example, American live load criteria are based on a reference period of 50 years, while Canadian criteria use a 30-year interval.<\/p>\n

The geographical location of the structure plays an important role for certain loads. It is particularly applicable to snow, wind and seismic action, the first being of special importance in north-central and north-eastern areas of the United States, the second in high wind coastal and mountain areas, and the last in areas having earthquake fault lines.<\/p>\n

Deign for wind effects is complicated by a number of phenomena. Like snow loads and earthquake action, wind loads are given more attention in certain parts of the country. At the same time wind loads are neither static nor uniformly varying, and are heavily influenced by the geometry of the structure as well s the surrounding structures and landscape. To a certain degree this also applies to the magnitude of the snow load. Building codes treat these effects as static phenomena and relate them to the actual conditions through semi empirical equations. This gives the designer a better handle on a difficult problem, but can lead to difficulties when the real structure departs significantly from the bases of the code. For that reason wind loads, and sometimes earthquake and snow loads, are determined on the basis of model test. In particular, wind tunnel testing has become a useful and practical tool in these endeavors.<\/p>\n

The loads on the structure are normally assumed to be independent of the type of structure and structural material, with the exception of dead loads. The response of a building, however, will be different for different materials, depending on the type of load. For example, the behavior of a moment-resistant steel frame will be quite unlike that of a braced frame, when subjected to lateral loads, especially those due to an earthquake. On the other hand, the response of these two frames to gravity loads will not be all that different.<\/p>\n

The size of a structure (height, floor area) has a significant impact on the magnitudes of most loads. All loads are influenced by the increasing height of a multistory building, for example. Similarly, the greater the floor area that is to be supported by a single member, the smaller will be the probability that the code live load will appear with its full intensity over the entire area. In such cases a live load reduction method is used to arrive at more realistic design data.<\/p>\n

Structures can be classified in a variety of ways.The casual observer might first consider classifying structures according to their respective functions: buildings, bridges, ships, aircraft, towers, and so on. This basis for structural classification is in fact fundamental;all structures have some functional reasons for existence.It is the need to fulfill some function that prompts the designer to give life to a structure.Furthermore, it is the need for a safe, serviceable, feasible, and aesthetically pleasing fulfillment of a function that dictates the form, material, and manner of loading of a structure.<\/p>\n

Once the form and material have been determined, a structure may be further classified according to either its form (e.g., an arch, truss, or suspension structure) or the material out of which it is constructed (e.g., steel concrete, or timber). The form and material of a structure in turn dictate its behavior, which in turn dictates the character of the analytical model.Fig. 6.1 illustrates schematically the relationships among the function a structure is to fulfill, the form and material and loading on the structure, the behavior of the structure, and the analytical model of the structure.At this point, we need to discuss some of the aspects of structural behavior indicated in Fig.6.1 and to explain their respective relationships to the form and material of the structure.A structure is linear if its response to loading, say displacement at a point, is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied load.proportionality does not exist, the structure is said to be nonlinear.Structural nonlinear are of two types:(1) material nonlinear that arise when stress is not proportional to strain, and (2) geometric nonlinear that arise when the configuration of the structure under load is markedly changed from the unloaded configuration. (the presence of cables in a structure often leads to geometric nonlinear because displacements can occur owing to a change in cable sag, which can be shown to be nonlinear related to the force in the cable.)materials, and therefore structures built from them, may be classified as elastic, plastic. Elastic materials rebound to their initial configuration when the load is removed, whereas plastic materials retain a permanent set.The deformations of materials depend on time and therefore load history, whereas the deformations of elastic and plastic materials do not. A structural system is conservative depending on whether or not energy is lost from the system during a cycle of loading and unloading.Energy is generally lost if a system does not recover its initial shape after unloading owing either to plastic behavior of the material or to friction forces within or between parts of the structure.<\/p>\n

All these behavioral aspects of the structure will have a significant influence on the nature of the analysis used in studying the structure.In addition, in developing the analytical model it will be necessary to consider whether the structural material is homogeneous or non homogeneous and whether it is\u00a0 an isotropic.(the physical properties of homogeneous materials are the same at each point; those of non homogeneous material are not.The physical properties of isotropic materials are the same in all directions at a point;those of an isotropic materials are not. Or tho tropic material is a special an isotropic material whose properties are different in three principal directions but whose properties in all other direction are dependent on those in the principal directions.) Other aspects of the structure, although important design considerations, will not usually have a significant impact on the analysis technique.These include brittleness, ductility, flammability, texture, color, hardness.<\/p>\n

Finally, the nature of the loading, which is dependent on the function of the structure, will also influence the analysis.The only truly static loading on a structure is the dead, or gravity, loading.However, if other load ins are applied gradually enough, they are called quasi-static load\u00a0 ins and may be considered static for analysis purposes.Whether or not the rate of loading is gradual enough depends on whether or not the time it takes to apply the load is longer than the fundamental period of vibration of the structure being analyzed.Loads usually need to be treated as dynamic only if they are periodic in nature or if they are applied very suddenly.Even then, sometimes an \u201cimpact factor\u201d is applied to an analysis with a static-loading result to account for the effect of a suddenly applied load.Loads can also be categorized as either external applied forces or internal initial distortions. Thermal loading is an example of an internal initial distortion (or initial strain) loading.<\/p>\n

Unfortunately, the picture of structural behavior is generally not so clear as that just painted. That is, materials are not either \u201clinear\u201d or \u201cnonlinear\u201d and \u201celastic\u201d or \u201cplastic\u201d; instead, their behavior depends on circumstances such as environment and rate of loading.The picture is further clouded in that the type of behavior that must be considered in an analysis may depend on the type of response being investigated. For example, a simpler analytical model may suffice to obtain static displacement and stress results than that which would be required for vibration or buckling results.<\/p>\n

To clarify this picture for purposes of a rational presentation of matrix analysis of structures, we will make simplifying assumptions as to the nature of the behavior structures. Thus we will consider only the displacement and stress response due to static loading of linear, elastic, conservative structures.We will further restrict our attention to discrete structures (rigid-and pin-jointed frameworks) as opposed to continuous structures. However, it is important to recognize at the outset that the concepts that will be presented can be extended to the solution of many other classes of structural problems, including those involving dynamic response, material and geometric nonlinear, in elasticity, instability, and continuous systems.Furthermore, the same concepts can be applied to problems from other areas of engineering, such as hydraulics, and heat transfer, as well as to problems outside of engineering altogether.Finally, to conserve space and time, most of our studies will deal with planar structures subjected to planar load ins in the plane of the structure. This approach will retain enough generality that the resulting analysis methods can be readily extended to three-dimensional applications.<\/p>\n

\u00a0\u4e2d\u6587\u8bd1\u6587\uff1a<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u8377\u8f7d<\/strong><\/p>\n

\u7b80\u4ecb<\/p>\n

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